![]() Urbanization and landscape modifications driven by human activities can have several environmental effects, such as increases in (A) temperature and (B) environmental pollution. farming, urbanization, pollution, etc.) and the geographic region of the study (e.g. Plasmodium or Haemoproteus), the type of anthropic impact (e.g. (6) Avian haemosporidian prevalence has been positively and/or negatively associated with anthropization depending on the parasite genera (e.g. (5) Spillover of pathogen from domestic to wildlife animals, here illustrated by the spillover of Plasmodium juxtanucleare from domestic chickens to wild birds (Ferreira-Junior et al., 2018). (4) West Nile virus circulates among birds and is vectored by Culex mosquitoes and infects humans mainly in residential and in agricultural areas. (3) Human malaria parasites are transmitted among humans by Anopheles mosquitoes in residential and agricultural areas. (2) Dengue virus infects mostly humans and is vectored by the mosquito Aedes aegypti. infects humans via sandfly bites in (a) zoonotic cycles (using domestic dogs as the main reservoirs) and in (b) anthroponotic cycles (i.e. Vector-borne pathogens and their vertebrate hosts and dipteran vectors transmitted in human-modified habitat. Hosts, vectors and pathogens co-evolve together in a constant antagonistic arms race with each participant's primary goal being to maximize its performance and fitness.Ĭoevolution evolution parasite–host interaction vector ecology vector-borne diseases virulence. Here, we assess how dipteran vector-borne transmission shapes the evolution of hosts, vectors and the pathogens themselves. To complete their life cycle, vector-borne pathogens must overcome immune responses from 2 unrelated organisms, since they can activate responses in both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts, possibly creating a trade-off between investments against both types of immunity. This mode of transmission may favour the evolution of greater virulence to the vertebrate host however, pathogen–vector interactions can also have a broad spectrum of fitness costs to the insect vector. parasite, vector and host) interaction can influence co- and counter-evolutionary pressures among antagonists. ![]() Consequently, each part of this tri-partite (i.e. Vector-borne parasites (in this review, those transmitted by blood-feeding Diptera) follow unique transmission routes towards their vertebrate hosts. They comprise some of the most important and widespread human pathogens, such as yellow fever, leishmania and malaria. Vector-borne pathogens are among the most important disease agents for humans and wildlife due to their broad distribution, high diversity, prevalence and lethality. Transmission mode is a key factor that influences host–parasite coevolution. ![]()
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